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By resistance we mean electrical opposition. These are created by an industrial chemist and are normally made from Carbon. They convert electrical energy into heat and so they have a certain power capacity. Carbon resistors are colour coded. High power resistors are wire wound with resistance wire and are painted with a heat resistance paint or enamel.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSThese resistors normally have resistance written on them with normal numbers. The resistor values that are colour coded and that you find in an electronic shop range from 0.1Ohm to 22,000,000 Ohms.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE  ATTRdCHRSPreferred Values.RULE gBATTR dCHRSThese are those values of components including resistors that are mass produced because they are in common use. In this way they are cheaper. In the early days of electronics, the resistors that were used in circuits were all from theATTR  dCHRS E6 seriesATTRs dCHRSs. In the E6 series the resistors are apart from each other by 50% and were 1.0 - 1.5 - 2.2 - 3.3 - 4.7 - 6.8 Ohms RULE XATTRX dCHRSX (50% from each other >>> 1.0 (+50%) = 1.5; 1.5 (+50%) = 2.2(5); 4.7 (+50%) = 6.8RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE BATTR dCHRSWith the introduction of the b&w TV and FM radios, the E6 series did not manage to cover all the resistors, so the the range was broaden to the ATTR  dCHRS E12 Series.ATTRX dCHRSX In the E12, the resistors are apart from each other by 20% , and the 12 resistors are: RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSWith the introduction of the colour TV, videos, and sophisticated modern technology, neither the E12 coped with the whole range of resistors, so the E24 was introduced. In this series, the resistors are apart by 10%. Nowadays, with the introduction of computers, space satellites, etc. there are even the E48 and E96, their resistors being apart by 5% and 2% respectively. For our work the E12 and E24 areRULE ATTR dCHRS of interests:RULE BATTR dCHRSE12ATTR dCHRS: ATTR dCHRS1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2 RULE {XATTR dCHRSE2ATTR dCHRS4ATTR dCHRS: ATTRv dCHRSv1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE !ATTR! dCHRS!Each series of resistors has a tolerance value. Tolerance is the permitable error declared by the manufacturer. The larger the series the less is the error. This error is expressed as a percentage (+/-) on the normal value. The preferred series of resistors have the following tolerances:RULE IATTR dCHRSE6 = 20%, ATTR dCHRS E12 = 10%, ATTR /dCHRS ATTR /dCHRS ATTR dCHRS E24 = 5%, ATTR UdCHRS ATTR UdCHRS ATTR dCHRS E48 = 2.5% ATTR dCHRS ATTR 7dCHRS ATTR dCHRS E96 = 1.25%RULE ATTR dCHRS RULE |ATTR| dCHRS|Hence all the resistance value from the 0.1 to 22,000,000 Ohms are represented by 210 resistors (E24 series) as shown below:RULE ATTR hdCHRSRULE 'ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR dCHRS0.1 - 0.91OhmsATTR gdCHRS ATTR dCHRS ATTR IdCHRS ATTR dCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE 1XATTR! dCHRS! 1.0 - 9.1 OhmsATTR ydCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR edCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE &ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS10 - 91 OhmsATTR dCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE &ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS100 - 910 OhmsATTR IdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR "dCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE 1nATTR hdCHRS ATTR hdCHRS1000 - 9100 OhmsATTR dCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR dCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE 9ATTR9 hdCHRS9 10,000 - 91,000 Ohms = 24 resistorsRULE 2BATTR# dCHRS# 100,00 - 910,000 OhmsATTR dCHRS ATTR dCHRS= 24 resistorsRULE 5ATTR5 dCHRS5 1,000,000 - 9,100,000 Ohms = 24 resistorsRULE JATTR" dCHRS" 10,000,000 - 22,000,000 OhmsATTR ZdCHRS ATTR ZdCHRS= 9 resistors, ATTR 7dCHRS ATTR hdCHRS ATTR ZdCHRStotal = 210 resistors.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE  2ATTR2dCHRS2Reading resistance from colour coding on resistorsRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSany common carbon resistor have 4 rings on its left side which could be of various colours. The colour code gives the resistance value of the resistor and its tolerance. RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE  )ATTR)dCHRS)Colour codes of the full E24 series rangeRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE  "ATTR"dCHRS"Linear and log variable resistors.RULE ATTR dCHRSA linear Variable Resistor has its resistance distributed evenly along its lemngth. A log variable resistor has its resistance distributed in such a way that the resistance distributed in such a way that the resistance increases by ten times on the previous value (1, 10, 100, 1000 etc) hence by log. For a life audio equipment, a log variable resistor is used to act as a volume control, since the human ear detects changes of volume in logarithmic proportions.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE  ATTRdCHRSTypes of Resistance values.RULE ATTR dCHRSThere are three types of resistance value a resistor can have and these are the Nominal Value, Actual Value and Upper & Lower Limit Value. RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE pBATTR dCHRSThe ATTR  dCHRS Nominal ValueATTR_ dCHRS_ is the resistance value obtained from the colour code of the resistor (first 3 rings) in Ohms.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE BATTR dCHRSThe ATTR  dCHRS Actual value ATTR dCHRS is the resistance value read by an ohmeter across the resistor. This should be a value between the upper or lower limit value.RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE BATTR dCHRSThe ATTR dCHRSUpper & lower limitATTR dCHRS is a range of resistance that a resistor could have. This is expressed as a tolerance percentage over the nominal value. Eg: a 1000 Ohms resistance with a tolerance of 10% will have an upper and lower limit range from 900 to 1100 Ohms. RULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRULE ATTR dCHRSRMSTRULEATTR dCHRSLMSTRULEATTR dCHRS