C. A large amount of oxalates must be eaten to
cause poisoning because most either
1. made insoluble as calcium oxalate, if
sufficient calcium in diet or
2. digested to bicarbonate; rumen can handle
this metabolism better than simple stomach, also increases in ability to
metabolize oxalates with continued ingestion - adapts. Oxalate metabolized
to formate and then to CO2.
D. Results of oxalate poisoning vary according
to the ion.
1. GI irritation if eat large amount.
Ex. experimental diets with more than 6% oxalates cause diarrhea in sheep -
secondary fungal invasion of rumenitis and hepatitis lesions may
follow.
2. Removal of calcium from blood -
precipitated as calcium oxalate, leads to a hypocalcemic muscle weakness
syndrome with hemorrhages (Na oxalate is an anticoagulant because it binds
calcium). Hypocalcemia contributes to great decrease in GI motility.
Oxalates also have effect of immobilizing calcium in the gut if already on
calcium deficient diet.
3. Acute nephrosis and uremia if
calcium oxalate crystals precipitate in and block many tubules of the kidney
- cumulative damage is possible; more tubules blocked with further
exposure.
4. Oxalate calculi in kidney, bladder,
urethra if smaller amounts over longer time.
5. Osteodystrophia fibrosa - metabolic
bone disease; horses in Australia grazing an introduced grass (Setaria
sphacelata) which contains ammonium oxalate and is also low in calcium -
interference with calcium metabolism. No such chronic syndrome reported in
sheep.
E. Signs for
1. diarrhea. Colic in Halogeton
poisoning.
2. dullness, sheep lags behind others, head
drooped at 45 degrees. Signs occur 2-6 hours after ingesting toxic amount -
get weakness, muscle tremors, staggering, go down; rapid weak pulse, rapid
labored respiration; rumen atony, dilated pupils; hemorrhages; may see
excess salivation, froth at mouth. Coma and death about 10 hours after
ingestion. Must differentiate in sheep from
a. hypocalcemia at parturition or with
starvation or forced exercise, also lactation tetany.
b. toxic indigestion - history of overload
of grain - splashy, atonic rumen; cold, comatose, hypocalcemic.
Pregnant and lactating animals are most
susceptible to oxalates because greater demand for calcium
3. and 4. depression, anuria, may strain to
urinate if calculi in urethra. Foul smell from mouth when uremic. Urine may
be red-brown.
F. Clinical pathology
1. serum calcium - total may be normal; just
unavailable because tied up as calcium oxalate. Ionic, available calcium may
drop to 20% of normal at time of death
2. better to assay suspected plant for oxalate
level.
3. albuminuria, hematuria from kidney damage.
Elevated BUN, creatinine.
G. Postmortem - no characteristic signs.
1. cystitis, urethritis, ureteritis
2. calculi in urethral process of ram, sigmoid
flexure of bull and ram.
3. swollen kidney, dark red cortex and medulla
of kidney separated by line of gray where oxalates accumulated.
Histologically, see
birefringent crystals in renal tubules - small, rhomboid, nearly
transparent crystals or rosette of crystals occluding lumen of tubule.
Crystals in rumen wall also.
4. splashy hemorrhages due to anticoagulant
action.
H. Treatment
1. calcium borogluconate: 50-100 ml in sheep,
500 ml in cows, IV or SC. Usually not enough to save animals because
imbalance of other ions has occurred. Na+ and K+ liberated when Ca++
precipitated, may get alkalosis. Also oxalates have interfered with enzymes
activated by calcium and magnesium, thus interfering with energy metabolism.
Halogeton sheep don't respond to calcium, but still try.
2. fluids to flush kidneys - dextrose solution
IV, forcefeed water (does save experimental Halogeton sheep).
I. Prevention
Ruminants safer than monogastrics
physiologically (detoxify, making carbonates and bicarbonates in the rumen)
but management endangers. Sheep are kept on that kind of range, readily eat
the oxalate plants.
Sarcobatus eaten in the spring when sheep unaccustomed to it.
Halogeton most toxic with rapid growth in autumn after dry summer.
Sheep vulnerable, according to Jensen, when
eat indiscriminately:
a. trailing thought dense growth of oxalate
plants
b. unloaded into dense growth of oxalate
plants
c. autumn and winter when snow covers other
forage
d. watering thirsty animals where plant
abounds
1. Salt hunger may predispose, so supply ample
salt in diet.
2. Ample water for kidney function
3. Safer if full rumen, so don't trail hungry
sheep
4. Keep off these pastures in the West, don't
feed rhubarb leaves and sugar beet tops in the East.
5. Can become adapted: switch slowly to high
oxalate diet if nothing else to feed; thin stand of Halogeton. Low dose for
4 days allow for adaptation, fatal dose is increased by 30%. Slow grazing
safer than rapid consumption.
6. Prophylactic dicalcium phosphate during
times of exposure;
a. 1/4 - 1/2 pound alfalfa pellets with 5%
dicalP/day (protects 2-4 hours)
b. salt free choice that is 25%
dicalP
c. alfalfa hay
J. The plants and kodachromes thereof
1. Sarcobatus - perennial shrub
2. Halogeton - introduced from Russia,
first found in early 1930's. Grows on barren soil, is adapted to deserts,
accumulates water in sausage-like leaves by being hypertonic with sodium
oxalate. Grows fast, seeds heavily - 1 plant produces 50,000 seeds. Annual,
but seeds may survive 5 or more years. Bulldozing great for the plant! Don't
spray either. Must control by competition with perennials. Seedlings
prostrate with 4
main branches (cruciform) and taproot.
As many as 1200 sheep have been poisoned at one time.
3. Rumex - curly broad leaf,
3-winged seeds
dark brown
color in fall. Rarely high enough level of oxalates to kill.
[4. Oxalis pes-caprae (Soursob) in
Australia - acid oxalates, serious problems; acute hypocalcemia and tetany,
subacute stiff gait or recumbent, chronic kidney damage.]
5. Rheum
- rhubarb, oxalates in blade. Livestock or people killed. Few leaves won't
hurt a horse, wheelbarrow full can kill pigs.
6. Arisaema- jack-in-the-pulpit. Calcium oxalate
crystals. Hooded flower, red berries, 3-part leaf outlined by marginal vein.
Protects plant. Poisonings from children's dare.
7. Dieffenbachia
(dumbcane) ornamental in hotel lobbies, restaurants. Actually a proteolytic
enzyme in the sap causing irritation, edema. Swelling in pharynx may hinder
respiration and thus kill. Tongue can't move, hence the name. Cats chewing
on house plants at risk.
8. Symplocarpus
- skunk cabbage to easterners - in wet woods, learn only to distinguish it
from Veratrum (called skunk cabbage by westerners). In the spring its
hooded purple
flower generates enough heat to melt snow around it.